soma enigma

 The mystery of ancient Indian entheogenic substances primarily revolves around Soma, the ritual drink praised in the Vedas, whose botanical identity is still debated. However, historical and mythological sources suggest the ritualistic or medicinal use of other psychoactive plants and fungi as well. 

Loss of the soma plant: The exact plant used to prepare the ancient soma drink is a botanical mystery. It is believed to have grown in mountainous regions and may have become scarce or gone extinct, possibly due to overharvesting or climate change. By around 800 BCE, the original plant was largely unavailable in the Gangetic plain where Vedic people had settled. Texts from this later period show substitutes being used in expiatory prayers that apologized to the gods for the missing ingredient.

Soma: The elusive Vedic elixir

Soma was a ritual drink used during the Vedic period (c. 1700–1100 BCE) to induce altered states of consciousness. Its recipe was lost sometime after 1000 BCE, leading to centuries of scholarly debate. Some of the main candidates for the original Soma plant or fungus include: 

Fly-agaric mushroom (Amanita muscaria): Proposed by amateur mycologist R. Gordon Wasson in the 1960s, this is a prominent theory based on descriptions in the Rigveda that seem to match the mushroom's appearance and effects.

Ephedra species: This is one of the most widely supported theories among scholars, partly because the plant genus is still called somalata in some areas and contains the stimulant ephedrine.

Syrian rue (Peganum harmala): Some scholars propose this plant, which contains hallucinogenic harmala alkaloids, was used in combination with other substances like Ephedra to produce the desired effects.

Psilocybe cubensis (magic mushrooms): This theory is based on the fact that these mushrooms grow in cow dung, and the Rigveda sometimes associated Soma with cows.

Nelumbo nucifera (sacred lotus): This plant's euphoric effects have led some researchers to suggest it as another potential candidate. 

Cannabis: The sacred herb

Cannabis has a long and documented history of use in India for medicinal and religious purposes, dating back to at least 2000 BCE. It is considered one of the five most sacred plants in the ancient Hindu text Atharva Veda. 

Medicinal use: In Ayurveda, cannabis, known as vijaya, was used to treat various ailments, including pain and digestive issues.

Religious use: Bhang, a drink made from cannabis leaves and seeds, is traditionally consumed during festivals like Holi. Hindu sadhus also use cannabis in their spiritual practices, associating it with the god Shiva. 

Datura: The poisonous sacred flower

The highly toxic Datura plant, or thorn-apple, is sacred to Lord Shiva and is offered in rituals, especially on Maha Shivaratri. While its fruits and flowers are used symbolically, its potent hallucinogenic properties mean it is not for ingestion. Some texts mention its medicinal use, but its toxicity makes its religious consumption uncommon. 

Psychoactive fungi

Beyond Amanita muscaria and Psilocybe cubensis as potential candidates for Soma, there is evidence of a deeper tradition of entheomycology—the study of fungi in spiritual contexts—in India. 

Archaeological findings: Mushroom-shaped monuments and carvings, particularly at ancient sites like the Khajuraho temples, suggest a historical recognition of sacred fungi.

Indigenous knowledge: Tribal cultures in regions like Kerala have long-standing ethnomycological traditions that include the identification of psychoactive mushroom species. 

Other potential entheogenic substances

Argyreia nervosa (Hawaiian baby woodrose): This large climber is a relative of morning glories and contains alkaloids that can cause hallucinogenic effects. It has been used in Ayurvedic medicine for other purposes, but its seeds are a known hallucinogen.

Mucuna pruriens (cow-itch plant): While not a classic hallucinogen, this plant is a natural source of L-dopa, a precursor to dopamine. Ayurvedic medicine has traditionally used it as a nervine tonic for nervous system support.